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Treated sewage sludge is still used on land, and one municipal utility reported substantial budgeted sales revenue from its fertilizer product. But that is not evidence that the biosolids industry as a whole is profitable: available figures do not establish industrywide earnings or profit margins. Meanwhile, EPA’s draft PFAS assessment identifies potential risks in some modeled scenarios, not a finding that every product or farm is contaminated or unsafe.
What fertilizer made from human waste actually is
Wastewater from homes and businesses—and sometimes industrial wastewater—is treated at a wastewater plant. The liquid is separated from the solids, leaving sewage sludge containing nutrients and organic matter. EPA generally uses “biosolids” for sewage sludge that has been treated to meet applicable requirements and is intended for land application as a soil conditioner or fertilizer. The phrase “human waste fertilizer” is shorthand: the material is treated, and its inputs may include commercial or industrial wastewater as well as household waste.
Land application can mean spreading or spraying material on soil, or incorporating or injecting it into the ground. EPA lists agricultural fields, forests, rangelands, reclamation sites, parks, golf courses, and home lawns and gardens among possible uses. Depending on the material and how it is used, claimed benefits can include adding nutrients or organic matter, improving soil, helping sequester carbon, and reducing demand for non-renewable phosphorus resources. Those potential benefits are not identical for every product or application.
What biosolids are used for—and how rules classify them
Federal rules for sewage sludge use and disposal are set out in 40 C.F.R. Part 503. They address pathogen reduction, vector-attraction reduction, pollutant limits, and management practices. EPA’s Class A and Class B labels concern pathogen treatment; they are not a blanket description of every potential contaminant.
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Class A and Exceptional Quality
Class A biosolids meet specified pathogen requirements. EPA describes Class A Exceptional Quality (EQ) biosolids as meeting the most stringent pollutant, pathogen, and vector-attraction requirements in its classification system. Such products are often sold for public use on lawns and home gardens. Neither Class A nor EQ status, by itself, proves that a product contains no PFAS: PFAS concerns are distinct from the Part 503 classifications.
Class B and additional use restrictions
Class B treatment significantly reduces pathogens but does not eliminate them, according to EPA. Additional restrictions apply to limit exposure, including requirements related to grazing, public access, and the timing of harvest. State, Tribal, and local rules can be stricter than federal requirements, so the applicable jurisdiction matters when assessing a particular product or site.
Is fertilizer made from human waste safe?
There is no evidence-based yes-or-no answer for every biosolids product and every use. Treatment class, regulated pollutant levels, PFAS concentrations, how much and how often material is applied, the crop, and the surrounding soil and water conditions all affect the assessment. A classification that establishes pathogen and pollutant requirements should not be treated as proof that every contaminant has been ruled out.
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Odor is a separate issue: EPA says it can vary with treatment method and weather, and that odor alone does not mean biosolids pose a risk to human health or the environment. A nuisance complaint should not be presented as proof of a health hazard.
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PFAS can enter wastewater from upstream industrial facilities, landfills, commercial operations, and household sources. In a January 14, 2025 release, EPA described a draft assessment of exposure to PFOA and PFOS associated with land application, surface disposal, and incineration. EPA said some modeled scenarios could exceed its acceptable thresholds, including certain scenarios modeled with biosolids containing 1 part per billion (ppb) of PFOA or PFOS. Those results are modeled scenarios, not measurements from every farm or findings about every biosolids product.
The assessment focused on people living on or near impacted sites and people relying primarily on products from those sites, such as food crops, animal products, or drinking water. EPA explicitly said its analysis did not suggest that the general food supply was affected by biosolids containing PFOA or PFOS. The agency also estimated that biosolids were used on less than 1% of fertilized acreage of productive U.S. agricultural land per year, based on the best data then available. That acreage estimate does not describe all land uses.
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Why the modeled risk cannot be applied to a specific farm
EPA’s FAQ says results depend on factors including PFAS concentration, application rate and history, crop, geography, climate, soil and groundwater conditions, and exposure assumptions. The assessment models PFOA and PFOS individually and individual exposure pathways rather than aggregate and cumulative exposure. It therefore is not an estimate of risk at a named farm. EPA identifies Method 1633 as its recommended method for measuring 40 PFAS analytes, including PFOA and PFOS, in sewage sludge, and also describes monitoring and pretreatment recommendations.
EPA’s 2026 draft guidance
On July 1, 2026, EPA released draft guidance recommending steps to reduce risk from PFOA and PFOS in biosolids. Recommendations include avoiding application near waterways and places where children play, and avoiding fertilizer use on crops with higher human-exposure potential. EPA says not all sewage sludge has detectable or elevated PFOA or PFOS and notes that state, Tribal, or county rules may add requirements. The guidance is a draft, not a final rule; its listed public-comment deadline is October 5, 2026.
How much sewage sludge is land-applied?
EPA’s annual reports for 2024 estimate that facilities within its reporting scope generated approximately 4 million dry metric tons of sewage sludge. The agency’s reported management breakdown is:
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| Management category | Share of reported total |
|---|---|
| Land application | 59.5% |
| Landfilling | 24.5% |
| Incineration | 14% |
| Other management | 2% |
EPA estimates approximately 2.39 million dry metric tons were land-applied in 2024. These are agency estimates for reporting facilities, not a complete national census: nine states with authorized programs are outside the statistics, smaller facilities may be missing, and EPA says it has no definitive nationwide total.
Within EPA’s end-use categories, “agricultural” includes food, feed, fiber, and energy crops as well as grazing. “Distribution and marketing” includes sludge sold or given away, including products for home lawns and gardens. These categories can overlap in use, so they should not be added together as if they were separate, mutually exclusive markets.
Independent reader supportYour contribution helps us test, update, and keep practical guides available for everyone.What the profitability evidence supports
The strongest concrete financial example is Milwaukee Metropolitan Sewerage District (MMSD), not an industrywide set of earnings data. In its 2023 budget, MMSD reported $11.8 million in budgeted net sales revenue for Milorganite. The district described sales to professional customers such as golf courses and retail customers including large stores. It also called Milorganite production the most cost-effective disposal solution for biosolids at its Jones Island and South Shore facilities.
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| Evidence | What it supports | What it does not establish |
|---|---|---|
| MMSD’s 2023 budget: $11.8 million in budgeted net sales revenue for Milorganite | One municipal producer budgeted substantial sales revenue for a marketed biosolids product. | Realized earnings, net profit, a profit margin, or profits across the biosolids industry. |
| MMSD’s statement that production was its most cost-effective biosolids disposal solution at two facilities | The product pathway served a disposal-management purpose for that utility. | That production is the cheapest option for every utility, or that the same economics apply elsewhere. |
Milorganite identifies itself as heat-dried microbes that digested organic matter in wastewater and says MMSD manufactures and markets it. That is a specific product pathway, not a description of every biosolids treatment process.
The distinction matters financially. Sales revenue is money coming in; it is not the same as profit after production, processing, testing, transport, sales, and other costs. A utility may also compare product recovery with the expense of alternative disposal, but the available figures do not provide a comparable national cost table for land application, landfill, and incineration. The evidence supports continued use and one documented revenue stream—not a conclusion that the industry as a whole is currently profitable.
Quick Recap
What to check when comparing a product or application
- Treatment and class: Check the pathogen-treatment classification and the use restrictions that apply to the product.
- Pollutants and PFAS: Review regulated pollutant information and whether PFAS testing is available, including which analytes and method were used.
- Exposure setting: Consider the crop or other land use, application location and history, and potential routes to people, animals, soil, and water.
- Local requirements: Check current state, Tribal, county, and local requirements in addition to federal rules.
- Purpose and economics: Consider nutrient or soil needs alongside processing, transportation, and the cost of alternative management options.
Product prices and availability are accurate as of the date/time indicated and are subject to change. Any price and availability information displayed on Amazon at the time of purchase will apply.
