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A small Bothell, Washington, biotechnology company gave Mary Brunkow and Fred Ramsdell a setting to investigate a deadly autoimmune disease in mice. Their work helped identify the Foxp3 gene and connect it to human IPEX. The 2025 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine recognized that contribution alongside Shimon Sakaguchi’s distinct, foundational discoveries about regulatory T cells.
What Darwin Molecular contributed
Darwin Molecular launched in Bothell in 1992, backed by Microsoft co-founders Bill Gates and Paul Allen, according to GeekWire’s account of the company and discovery. Brunkow and Ramsdell joined in 1994. The company’s work took place during the early Human Genome Project period, before researchers had a complete human genome reference available for the gene-cloning approach described by Lee Hood, an Institute for Systems Biology co-founder.
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Brunkow’s group investigated a severe autoimmune disease in mice, breeding affected animals and narrowing down the mutation involved. The company’s research teams identified the gene they named FOXP3; Ramsdell’s team focused on cell biology and how the immune system operated in the mutant mice. Hood recalled that gene cloning then required starting from scratch and called it “an extremely challenging idea.” Brunkow later described the small company as a place where the researchers made a strong team and had freedom to try different things.
How the three discoveries fit together
The Nobel Assembly’s account traces a sequence of related findings, rather than a single discovery by two scientists. Its 2025 prize announcement explains the roles of all three laureates:
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| Year | Research contribution | Why it mattered |
|---|---|---|
| 1995 | Shimon Sakaguchi discovered regulatory T cells. | These cells help monitor other immune cells and support tolerance of the body’s own tissues. |
| 2001 | Brunkow and Ramsdell presented evidence that a mutation in Foxp3 made a mouse strain vulnerable to autoimmune disease, and that mutations in the human equivalent cause IPEX. | The work connected a specific gene to a serious autoimmune condition in both mice and people. |
| 2003 | Sakaguchi showed that FOXP3 governs the development of regulatory T cells. | This connected the gene findings to the cells that help restrain harmful immune responses. |
In plain terms, immune defenses must distinguish threats from the body’s own tissues. Regulatory T cells help prevent attacks on those tissues. The Nobel Assembly calls this broader process “peripheral immune tolerance”: the control of immune responses beyond the mechanisms that shape immune cells earlier in their development.
Why the 2025 Nobel was shared
The Nobel Assembly awarded the 2025 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine to Mary E. Brunkow, Fred Ramsdell, and Shimon Sakaguchi “for their discoveries concerning peripheral immune tolerance.” Brunkow and Ramsdell’s findings about FOXP3 and autoimmune disease formed one part of the scientific story; Sakaguchi’s discovery of regulatory T cells and later demonstration of FOXP3’s role formed another. The prize was shared by all three laureates, not awarded to the Seattle-area scientists alone.
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The award was 11 million Swedish kronor, shared equally among the three laureates, according to the Nobel Assembly. Nobel Committee chair Olle Kämpe said the discoveries were decisive for understanding how the immune system functions and why serious autoimmune diseases do not develop in everyone.
What happened to the company
Darwin Molecular’s story did not end with the discovery. GeekWire reports that London-based Chiroscience Group acquired the company in 1996, Chiroscience merged with Celltech in 1999, and the Washington research-and-development operations closed in 2004. Brunkow and Ramsdell left when the operations closed. These dates and corporate transitions are reported by GeekWire; they illustrate the company’s chronology, not an independently established account of its corporate records.
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The arc shows how research can continue to matter after the organization that supported it changes hands or shuts down. Darwin Molecular provided the setting for Brunkow and Ramsdell’s work; the subsequent scientific picture depended on discoveries by researchers working on connected questions, including Sakaguchi.
Independent reader supportYour contribution helps us test, update, and keep practical guides available for everyone.What the discovery does—and does not—mean for treatment
Understanding FOXP3 and regulatory T cells has informed research into immune tolerance and potential treatments. The Nobel Assembly describes therapeutic possibilities as directions for further research, not as proven therapies or clinical advice. The award itself does not establish that a particular treatment is available, effective, or appropriate for any person with an autoimmune condition.
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